Throughout history, the world has been graced by extraordinary feats of architecture and engineering that stand as testaments to human ingenuity, creativity, and ambition. These iconic landmarks not only captivate with their breathtaking beauty but also leave an indelible mark on our collective consciousness. What sets the following 10 landmarks apart, however, is not just their architectural splendor but the staggering cost of bringing these visions to life.
From towering skyscrapers that pierce the heavens to grand cultural institutions that bridge the realms of art and history, each of these landmarks is a triumph of design, construction, and dedication. Join us on a journey to explore the 10 most expensive iconic landmarks from around the globe, where we’ll delve into the fascinating stories behind their creation, the challenges faced, and the lasting impact they’ve had on the world. From opulent palaces to modern marvels, these landmarks have redefined skylines, enriched cultures, and left us in awe of what human determination and creativity can achieve. Let’s embark on this remarkable architectural odyssey together
10. The Beijing National Stadium (Bird’s Nest), China – $480 Million
Design Innovation: The Bird’s Nest was designed by Swiss architects Herzog & de Meuron, in collaboration with Chinese artist Ai Weiwei. Its distinctive lattice-like structure resembles a bird’s nest and was inspired by traditional Chinese ceramics.
Olympic Legacy: The stadium was the main venue for the 2008 Beijing Olympics and played a pivotal role in hosting the opening and closing ceremonies, as well as various sporting events, including athletics and football.
Size and Capacity: The Bird’s Nest is one of the largest stadiums globally, with a seating capacity of around 91,000 spectators. Its vast interior can accommodate a wide range of events, from sports to concerts.
Steel Structure: The stadium’s intricate steel structure consists of thousands of steel beams, creating the appearance of a woven nest. This design not only showcases architectural innovation but also provides structural stability.
Nighttime Illumination: The Bird’s Nest is known for its striking nighttime illumination. LED lights embedded in the structure allow for stunning light shows and color displays, making it a dazzling landmark in Beijing.
Sustainable Features: The stadium incorporates sustainable design elements, including rainwater collection and reuse, natural ventilation, and a geothermal heating system. These features align with modern principles of eco-friendliness.
Post-Olympics Use: After the Olympics, the stadium has been used for various events, including sports competitions, cultural performances, and even weddings. It remains a symbol of Beijing’s cultural and sporting vitality.
Cultural Significance: The Bird’s Nest has become an iconic symbol of modern China and a testament to the nation’s rapid development and transformation in the 21st century.
Accessibility: The stadium is easily accessible via public transportation, making it a popular tourist attraction for visitors to Beijing.
National Stadium: As the national stadium of China, the Bird’s Nest has hosted a wide range of events, from international sporting competitions to major concerts featuring renowned artists.
Acoustic Design: Despite its massive size, the stadium features an acoustic design that ensures excellent sound quality for performances and concerts held within its confines.
Tourist Destination: The Bird’s Nest has attracted millions of tourists who come to admire its architectural beauty, take guided tours, and experience the spirit of the Beijing Olympics.
The Beijing National Stadium, the Bird’s Nest, is not just a sports arena; it’s a symbol of China’s aspirations and a testament to the country’s ability to host world-class events. Its fusion of innovation, culture, and sustainability continues to make it a source of pride for China and a captivating destination for visitors from around the globe.
9. The Louvre Abu Dhabi, UAE – $1 Billion
Architectural Marvel: The Louvre Abu Dhabi’s striking architecture was designed by the renowned French architect Jean Nouvel. It features a massive silver dome that appears to float above the museum, creating a breathtaking play of light and shadows.
Floating Dome: The dome, weighing approximately 7,500 tons, is one of the museum’s most distinctive features. Its intricate web-like pattern allows sunlight to filter through, creating a “rain of light” effect reminiscent of the traditional Arabic architecture of the region.
International Collaboration: The Louvre Abu Dhabi is the result of a unique collaboration between the United Arab Emirates and France. Under a cultural agreement, the museum draws from the expertise and collections of the Louvre Museum in Paris and other French institutions.
Artistic Collections: The museum’s collection spans thousands of years and includes art and artifacts from various civilizations and cultures, offering a global perspective on art history. It features pieces from ancient civilizations, Islamic art, European paintings, and contemporary works.
Iconic Location: Situated on Saadiyat Island, the Louvre Abu Dhabi is surrounded by water, creating a sense of tranquility and reflection. Its design incorporates water features and channels, further enhancing its aesthetic appeal.
Interconnected Galleries: The museum’s galleries are interconnected beneath the dome, offering visitors a seamless and immersive journey through different periods and styles of art.
Educational Programs: The Louvre Abu Dhabi is not just a repository of art but also a center for education and cultural exchange. It offers a range of educational programs, workshops, and exhibitions for all ages.
Cultural Bridge: The museum’s mission is to bridge cultures and promote understanding through art. It encourages dialogue and fosters appreciation for the diversity of human creativity.
Permanent and Temporary Exhibits: The museum hosts both permanent and temporary exhibitions, with artworks and artifacts rotating regularly to provide fresh experiences for visitors.
Visitor Experience: The Louvre Abu Dhabi offers a serene and contemplative environment for art lovers and cultural enthusiasts. Its spacious galleries and open architecture allow visitors to explore at their own pace.
Recognition: Since its opening in 2017, the Louvre Abu Dhabi has garnered international acclaim for its architectural excellence and cultural significance.
Cultural District: The museum is part of the Saadiyat Cultural District, which aims to become a global cultural destination, featuring museums, performing arts centers, and other cultural institutions.
The Louvre Abu Dhabi serves as a testament to the power of art and culture to transcend borders and foster understanding among people from diverse backgrounds. Its unique design, rich collections, and commitment to cultural exchange make it a must-visit destination for art and history enthusiasts.
8. The Sydney Opera House, Australia – $1,2 Billion
Architectural Masterpiece: The Sydney Opera House was designed by Danish architect Jørn Utzon. Its groundbreaking and distinctive design features a series of white shell-like structures that appear to soar above Sydney Harbour.
World Heritage Site: In 2007, the Sydney Opera House was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognizing its exceptional architectural and cultural significance.
Construction: Construction of the Opera House began in 1959 and was completed in 1973, taking over 14 years to finish. The project faced numerous engineering and logistical challenges.
Sails of Inspiration: The iconic shell-like structures are often likened to billowing sails or seashells. Utzon found inspiration for this design in a variety of sources, including palm leaves and peeling oranges.
Multi-Venue Complex: The Sydney Opera House is not just one venue; it’s a complex of multiple performance spaces, including the Concert Hall, Opera Theatre, Drama Theatre, and more. It hosts a wide range of artistic performances, from opera and ballet to concerts and theater.
Acoustic Excellence: The Concert Hall, renowned for its exceptional acoustics, is home to the Sydney Symphony Orchestra. Its interior features a series of wooden panels and shapes designed to optimize sound quality.
Innovative Building Techniques: The construction of the Sydney Opera House involved groundbreaking engineering techniques, including the use of precast concrete ribs to create the shell-like structures.
Opening Ceremony: Queen Elizabeth II officially opened the Sydney Opera House on October 20, 1973, during a grand ceremony.
Interior Elegance: Beyond its striking exterior, the Opera House boasts elegant interiors, including stunning foyers and lobbies that are as artistically designed as the exterior.
Performing Arts Hub: The Opera House is not just a performance venue but also a hub for artistic expression, education, and community engagement, hosting a wide range of events and activities.
Symbol of Australia: The Sydney Opera House is considered an enduring symbol of Australia, representing its cultural vibrancy and commitment to the arts.
Tourist Attraction: Beyond its cultural significance, the Opera House is a major tourist attraction, drawing millions of visitors from around the world who come to admire its architecture and enjoy its performances.
The Sydney Opera House stands as a testament to human creativity, innovation, and artistic expression. It is a cultural icon that continues to inspire and captivate people worldwide with its breathtaking design and vibrant artistic offerings.
7. The New National Stadium (Tokyo Olympic Stadium), Japan – $1,4 Billion
Olympic Legacy: The New National Stadium was purpose-built for the Tokyo 2020 (2021) Summer Olympics and Paralympics. It served as the main venue for the opening and closing ceremonies and various athletic events.
Architectural Triumph: The stadium’s design is the work of renowned Japanese architect Kengo Kuma. His vision aimed to create a structure that blends seamlessly with the surrounding environment and symbolizes harmony between nature and human achievement.
Wooden Lattice Structure: One of the most striking features of the stadium is its use of wooden elements in the design. The stadium’s exterior is adorned with a lattice-like structure made of cedar wood sourced from all 47 prefectures in Japan.
Capacity: The stadium has a seating capacity of approximately 68,000 spectators during the Olympics, making it one of the largest stadiums in Japan. After the Games, the capacity was reduced to around 50,000.
Sustainable Design: Sustainability was a key consideration in the stadium’s design. The extensive use of wood and greenery in the structure reflects Japan’s commitment to environmentally conscious architecture.
Flexible Layout: The New National Stadium is designed with flexibility in mind. Its seating can be reconfigured to accommodate various sporting and cultural events, as well as concerts and exhibitions.
National Symbol: The stadium has quickly become an emblematic symbol of Tokyo and Japan’s hosting of the Summer Olympics, representing the nation’s modernity and reverence for tradition.
Natural Ventilation: The design incorporates natural ventilation, reducing the need for artificial cooling systems and enhancing the stadium’s sustainability.
Accessibility: Located in Tokyo’s Shinjuku ward, the stadium is easily accessible via public transportation, including trains and buses, making it a focal point for sports enthusiasts and tourists.
Rooftop Greenery: The stadium features rooftop greenery, creating a park-like atmosphere that provides a place of respite for visitors and offers scenic views of Tokyo.
Cultural Relevance: The stadium is not just a sports venue but also a cultural hub, hosting a wide range of events and activities that showcase Japan’s rich cultural heritage.
Olympic Flame: The stadium was the site of the Olympic flame’s lighting ceremony, a tradition that dates back to ancient Greece. The flame was used to kindle the Olympic cauldron during the opening ceremony.
The New National Stadium represents Japan’s commitment to hosting a memorable and sustainable Olympics while paying homage to its cultural and natural heritage. Its stunning architecture and versatile design ensure it remains a cherished landmark and a hub for cultural and sporting events for years to come.
6. Burj Khalifa, Dubai, UAE – $1,5 Billion
Tallest Building in the World: The Burj Khalifa holds the record for being the tallest building globally, with a staggering height of 828 meters (2,717 feet). It surpassed the previous record held by the Taipei 101 in 2010.
Designed by Adrian Smith: The renowned architect Adrian Smith of the architectural firm SOM (Skidmore, Owings & Merrill) designed the Burj Khalifa. His design was inspired by Islamic architecture and features a series of setbacks that reduce the wind load on the building.
Spectacular Observation Deck: At the 148th floor, the Burj Khalifa boasts the world’s highest observation deck, “At the Top Sky.” Visitors can enjoy breathtaking panoramic views of Dubai and beyond.
Innovative Elevators: The Burj Khalifa features some of the world’s fastest elevators, which can travel at speeds of up to 36 kilometers (22 miles) per hour. These elevators are essential for transporting visitors to the upper floors quickly.
Luxury Living: In addition to office space and the Armani Hotel, the Burj Khalifa houses luxurious residential apartments. These high-end residences are sought after by affluent individuals from around the world.
Fireworks Extravaganza: The Burj Khalifa is famous for its spectacular New Year’s Eve fireworks displays, which attract thousands of spectators. The dazzling pyrotechnics illuminate the night sky, creating a stunning visual spectacle.
Structural Feats: To build the Burj Khalifa, engineers used over 103,000 cubic meters of concrete, 15,500 square meters of embossed stainless steel, and 103,000 square meters of reflective glazing. The tower’s Y-shaped design helps distribute its weight evenly.
Iconic Lighting: The Burj Khalifa features an LED lighting system that can display a range of colorful light shows, transforming the skyscraper into a dynamic art piece after dark.
Named in Honor of Sheikh Khalifa: The Burj Khalifa was named in honor of Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the President of the United Arab Emirates at the time of its construction.
Global Landmark: The Burj Khalifa has become a global landmark and a symbol of Dubai’s rapid growth and modernization. It continues to draw tourists and admirers from around the world.
The Burj Khalifa stands not only as a towering skyscraper but as a testament to human achievement and the limitless possibilities of architectural innovation. It has earned its place as one of the most iconic and awe-inspiring structures on the planet.
5. The Shard, London, UK – $2,3 Billion
Tallest Building in the UK: The Shard stands as the tallest building in the United Kingdom, with a height of 310 meters (1,016 feet). It surpassed previous records to claim this title.
Architectural Design: Renowned Italian architect Renzo Piano designed The Shard. Its design was inspired by railway lines and London’s historic church spires, resulting in its distinctive glass spire-like shape.
Shattered Glass Aesthetic: The building’s façade features 11,000 glass panels, which give it a distinctive shattered glass appearance, hence its nickname “The Shard.”
Mixed-Use Development: The Shard is a mixed-use development, housing a combination of offices, luxury apartments, the Shangri-La Hotel, restaurants, and the View from The Shard observation deck.
The View from The Shard: The Shard offers breathtaking views of London from its observation deck, “The View from The Shard.” Visitors can enjoy panoramic vistas of the city from the 72nd floor, making it one of the top tourist attractions in London.
Sustainable Features: The building incorporates numerous sustainable features, including energy-efficient heating and cooling systems, rainwater harvesting, and a façade that maximizes natural light and reduces the need for artificial lighting.
Transport Hub: The Shard is conveniently located above London Bridge Station, a major transportation hub, making it easily accessible for commuters and tourists.
Public Art: The Shard includes public art installations, including “Shard Lights,” a series of LED installations that illuminate the building’s spire at night.
Culinary Delights: The Shard boasts several high-end restaurants, including Aqua Shard, Hutong, and Oblix, offering fine dining experiences with stunning views of the city.
Iconic Landmark: Since its completion in 2012, The Shard has become an iconic symbol of modern London and a recognizable feature in the city’s skyline.
Night Illumination: The Shard is often illuminated at night in various colors and patterns, adding to its visual appeal and making it a striking addition to the city’s nocturnal landscape.
Vertical City: The Shard has been referred to as a “vertical city” due to its combination of office spaces, residential units, dining establishments, and entertainment options, creating a thriving community within its walls.
The Shard stands as a testament to modern architecture and London’s ever-evolving skyline. Its glass-clad elegance, panoramic views, and multifunctional design make it a notable landmark and a symbol of London’s forward-thinking urban development.
4. The Palace of the Parliament, Bucharest, Romania – $4 Billion
Gigantic Size: The Palace of the Parliament is one of the largest administrative buildings globally and ranks as the heaviest building in the world. It spans approximately 365,000 square meters (3,930,000 square feet) and boasts 12 stories, including four underground levels.
Communist Legacy: Construction of the palace began in 1984 under the communist regime of Nicolae Ceaușescu. It was originally named the “House of the People” and was intended to showcase the might and influence of the Romanian government.
Architectural Splendor: The building’s architecture is a blend of neoclassical and totalitarian styles, featuring grandiose facades adorned with intricate details, columns, and sculptures. The interior is equally lavish, with opulent chandeliers, marble, and ornate decorations.
Huge Cost: Building the Palace of the Parliament was a colossal undertaking, both in terms of resources and finances. It is estimated to have cost billions of US dollars to construct, making it one of the most expensive buildings globally.
Skilled Labor: Tens of thousands of workers, including architects, engineers, and laborers, were involved in its construction. Some reports suggest that forced labor was used during the building’s construction.
Adaptive Reuse: Since the fall of the Ceaușescu regime in 1989, efforts have been made to adaptively reuse parts of the palace. Today, it houses the Romanian Parliament, as well as museums, conference halls, and a concert hall.
Massive Chandelier: The palace features a colossal crystal chandelier weighing approximately 3.5 tons. It hangs in the Palace of Parliament’s Human Rights Hall.
Underground Tunnels: Beneath the building, there are reportedly a network of tunnels and bunkers designed to serve as escape routes and shelters during emergencies.
Seismic Stability: Due to its location in a seismically active area, the palace is equipped with advanced seismic protection systems to ensure its stability during earthquakes.
Tourist Attraction: Today, the Palace of the Parliament is a popular tourist attraction, drawing visitors from around the world who come to marvel at its grandeur and learn about Romania’s history.
The Palace of the Parliament is a testament to the ambition and extravagance of the Ceaușescu regime. While its construction has been met with controversy and criticism, it remains a symbol of Romania’s past and a prominent landmark in Bucharest.
3. One World Trade Center, New York City, USA – $4,3 Billion
Tallest Building in the Western Hemisphere: One World Trade Center stands as the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, with a pinnacle height of 1,776 feet (541 meters). This height is symbolic, representing the year of the United States’ Declaration of Independence.
Design and Architecture: The building was designed by architect David Childs of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, and it incorporates elements of the original World Trade Center towers while incorporating modern architectural features.
Construction: Construction on One World Trade Center began in 2006, and it was officially opened on November 3, 2014. The tower is part of the larger World Trade Center complex, which includes the 9/11 Memorial and Museum.
Sustainable Design: One World Trade Center is designed with sustainability in mind. It includes energy-efficient features, such as natural light, recycled materials, and a rainwater collection system.
Symbolism: The tower’s design and location hold deep symbolic significance. It stands on the site where the original World Trade Center towers were destroyed during the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. The new tower is a symbol of resilience and a tribute to the lives lost on that tragic day.
Observation Deck: The One World Observatory, located on the 100th, 101st, and 102nd floors, offers breathtaking panoramic views of New York City and the surrounding area. Visitors can also learn about the building’s history and construction.
Security Measures: One World Trade Center incorporates advanced security features, including blast-resistant windows and a reinforced concrete core. Security is a top priority due to its historical significance.
Memorial Pools: At the base of the tower, there are two large reflecting pools set in the footprints of the original Twin Towers. These pools are surrounded by bronze parapets inscribed with the names of the nearly 3,000 people who lost their lives on September 11, 2001.
Transportation Hub: The World Trade Center Transportation Hub, designed by architect Santiago Calatrava, is an intricate transportation hub and shopping center that connects various subway lines and the PATH train system.
Cultural Center: The World Trade Center complex also features the Ronald O. Perelman Performing Arts Center, which will host a variety of cultural events, including music, dance, and theater performances.
One World Trade Center stands as a symbol of hope and resilience, honoring the past while looking toward the future. It is a testament to the strength of the human spirit and the determination to rebuild and remember in the face of tragedy.
2. The Makkah Clock Royal Tower, Saudi Arabia – $15 Billion
Tallest Clock Tower: The Makkah Clock Royal Tower holds the distinction of being the tallest clock tower in the world. Its height reaches 601 meters (1,972 feet), making it one of the tallest buildings globally.
Mecca’s Skyline: This iconic tower is a defining feature of the skyline in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Its striking design includes a massive clock face on each of its four sides, which can be seen from a considerable distance.
Religious Significance: The Makkah Clock Royal Tower is part of the Abraj Al Bait complex, which surrounds the Masjid al-Haram, the holiest mosque in Islam. It serves as both a hotel and a center for worship.
Clock Accuracy: The clock faces on the tower are among the most accurate in the world, with each dial measuring 43 meters (141 feet) in diameter. The clocks are visible to pilgrims performing Hajj and Umrah rituals in Mecca.
Luxurious Accommodations: The tower houses the Fairmont Makkah Clock Royal Hotel, which offers luxurious accommodations for visitors to Mecca. It is a popular choice for pilgrims seeking convenience and comfort.
Hajj and Umrah: Due to its proximity to the Masjid al-Haram, the tower plays a significant role in facilitating the experiences of pilgrims who come to Mecca for the annual Hajj pilgrimage and the lesser pilgrimage, Umrah.
Observation Deck: The Makkah Clock Royal Tower features an observation deck that provides breathtaking panoramic views of Mecca and the Grand Mosque. Visitors can witness the bustling activities around the holy site.
Faithful Timekeeping: The tower’s clock is meticulously calibrated to keep time according to the Islamic lunar calendar, ensuring that it accurately signals the times for daily prayers.
Illumination: At night, the Makkah Clock Royal Tower is illuminated with a soft, golden glow, enhancing its visual presence and spiritual significance.
Integration with Faith: The tower’s architectural design seamlessly integrates modern luxury with Islamic aesthetics, exemplifying Saudi Arabia’s commitment to modernization while preserving religious heritage.
Global Symbol: The Makkah Clock Royal Tower has become a symbol of Mecca and the Islamic world, representing both devotion and progress.
Year-Round Pilgrimage: Mecca attracts millions of pilgrims and visitors throughout the year, making the tower a hub of religious and cultural activity.
The Makkah Clock Royal Tower serves as a testament to the enduring spiritual significance of Mecca and the commitment to providing comfort and convenience to the millions of pilgrims who visit this sacred city annually. Its imposing presence and iconic clock faces are emblematic of the intersection of faith and modernity in the heart of Islam.
1. The Great Mosque of Mecca (Masjid al-Haram), Saudi Arabia – $100 Billion
Holiest Site in Islam: Masjid al-Haram is considered the holiest mosque in Islam and is the focal point of the Hajj pilgrimage, which every Muslim who is physically and financially able is required to undertake at least once in their lifetime.
Kaaba: At the center of the mosque is the Kaaba, a cube-shaped building draped in a black silk and gold curtain known as the “Kiswah.” Muslims around the world face in the direction of the Kaaba, known as the qibla, during their daily prayers.
History: The history of the mosque dates back to the time of the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son Isma’il (Ishmael), who are believed to have built the Kaaba as a house of worship for one God. It has undergone numerous renovations and expansions over the centuries.
Capacity: Masjid al-Haram is one of the largest mosques in the world and can accommodate millions of worshippers during the Hajj season. Its vast outdoor courtyard and indoor prayer halls can hold hundreds of thousands of people at a time.
Black Stone: Embedded in the eastern corner of the Kaaba is the Black Stone, which Muslims believe was a gift from Allah to Prophet Ibrahim. Pilgrims seek to touch or kiss it during their Tawaf (circumambulation) of the Kaaba.
Abraj Al Bait Towers: The mosque’s surroundings include the Abraj Al Bait Towers, a complex of skyscrapers that house hotels, shopping centers, and other facilities for pilgrims. The tallest tower, the Clock Tower, is one of the tallest buildings in the world and features the world’s largest clock face.
Non-Muslim Access: While non-Muslims are generally not allowed access to the city of Mecca, they can visit the outskirts of the mosque and explore the stunning architecture of the Abraj Al Bait Towers.
Five Daily Prayers: Masjid al-Haram is a place of continuous worship, with Muslims performing the five daily prayers and additional voluntary prayers throughout the day and night.
Ongoing Expansion: Due to the increasing number of pilgrims and worshippers, the Saudi government has undertaken numerous expansion projects to accommodate more people and enhance the mosque’s facilities.
Spiritual Significance: For Muslims, a visit to Masjid al-Haram is a deeply spiritual and transformative experience. It is a place of intense devotion, reflection, and connection with Allah.
The Great Mosque of Mecca holds a central place in the hearts of Muslims and represents the unity and diversity of the Islamic world. Its significance extends far beyond its physical structure, as it serves as a symbol of the spiritual journey and devotion of millions of believers worldwide.
What is the greatest landmark?
It’s challenging to pinpoint a single “greatest” landmark because the assessment of greatness is highly subjective and dependent on individual preferences, cultural significance, and historical context. Landmarks are often celebrated for their unique qualities and contributions, and what might be considered the greatest to one person may not hold the same meaning to another.
That said, some landmarks, such as the Great Wall of China, the Pyramids of Giza, and the Taj Mahal, are frequently cited among the world’s most iconic and historically significant landmarks due to their immense historical, cultural, and architectural importance. However, determining the one “greatest” landmark remains a matter of personal opinion and perspective.
What is the most expensive historical monument?
Determining the most expensive historical monument can be challenging, as costs can vary significantly depending on factors such as inflation, restoration efforts, and ongoing maintenance. Additionally, some historical monuments have seen substantial investments over the years. However, one of the most expensive historical restoration projects in recent history is the Taj Mahal in India.
The Taj Mahal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the most iconic symbols of India, underwent a major restoration project that spanned several years and cost an estimated $16 million (approximately 1,120 crore Indian Rupees) as of the early 21st century. This extensive restoration work aimed to address issues such as yellowing of the marble, structural concerns, and environmental damage caused by pollution.
While the Taj Mahal’s restoration is among the most expensive in recent history, it’s important to note that many historical monuments and landmarks require ongoing maintenance and restoration efforts to preserve their cultural and architectural significance. The cost of such projects can vary widely, and identifying the single “most expensive” historical monument is a complex task due to these variables.